Camera Noise and Temperature

Sources of Noise

Noise in a camera image is the aggregate spatial and temporal variation in the measured signal, assuming constant, uniform illumination. There are several components of noise:

• Dark Shot Noise (σ_D): Dark current is a current that flows even when no photons are incident on the camera. It is a thermal phenomenon resulting from electrons spontaneously generated within the silicon chip (valence electrons are thermally excited into the conduction band). The variation in the amount of dark electrons collected during the exposure is the dark shot noise. It is independent of the signal level but is dependent on the temperature of the sensor as shown in Table 1.
• Read Noise (σ_R): This is the noise generated in producing the electronic signal. This results from the sensor design but can also be impacted by the design of the camera electronics. It is independent of signal level and temperature of the sensor, and is larger for faster CCD pixel clock rates.
• Photon Shot Noise (σ_S): This is the statistical noise associated with the arrival of photons at the pixel. Since photon measurement obeys Poisson statistics, the photon shot noise is dependent on the signal level measured. It is independent of sensor temperature.
• Fixed Pattern Noise (σ_F): This is caused by spatial non-uniformities of the pixels and is independent of signal level and temperature of the sensor. Note that fixed pattern noise will be ignored in the discussion below; this is a valid assumption for the CCD cameras sold here but may need to be included for other non-scientific-grade sensors.

Total Effective Noise

The total effective noise per pixel is the quadrature sum of each of the noise sources listed above:

Here, σ_D is the dark shot noise, σ_R is the read noise (for sample calculations, we will use our 1.4 megapixel cameras, which use the ICX285AL sensor. Typically the read noise is less than 10 e- for scientific-grade cameras using the ICX285AL CCD; we will assume a value of 10 e- in this tutorial), and σ_S is the photon shot noise. If σ_S>>σ_D and σ_S>>σ_R, then σ_eff is approximately given by the following:

Again, fixed pattern noise is ignored, which is a good approximation for scientific-grade CCDs but may need to be considered for non-scientific-grade sensors.

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Figure 1: Plot of dark shot noise and read noise as a function of exposure for three sensor temperatures for a sample camera. This plot uses logarithmic scales for both axes.The dotted vertical line at 5 s indicates the values calculated as the example in the text.

Dark Shot Noise and Sensor Temperature

As mentioned above, the dark current is a thermal effect and can therefore be reduced by cooling the sensor. Table 1 lists typical dark current values for a sample camera with a CCD sensor. As the dark current results from spontaneously generated electrons, the dark current is measured by simply "counting" these electrons. Since counting electrons obeys Poisson statistics, the noise associated with the dark current I_D is proportional to the square root of the number of dark electrons that accumulate during the exposure. For a given exposure, the dark shot noise, σ_D, is therefore the square root of the I_D value from Table 1 (for a given sensor temperature) multiplied by the exposure time t in seconds:

Since the dark current decreases with decreasing temperature, the associated noise can be decreased by cooling the camera. For example, assuming an exposure of 5 seconds, the dark shot noise levels for the three sensor temperatures listed in the table are

Figure 1, which is a plot of the dark shot noise as a function of exposure for the three temperatures listed in Table 1, illustrates how the dark shot noise increases with increasing exposure. Figure 1 also includes a plot of the upper limit of the read noise.

If the photon shot noise is significantly larger than the dark shot noise, then cooling provides a negligible benefit in terms of the noise, and our standard package cameras will work well.

Photon Shot Noise

If S is the number of "signal" electrons generated when a photon flux of N photons/second is incident on each pixel of a sensor with a quantum efficiency QE and an exposure duration of t seconds, then

From S, the photon shot noise, σ_S, is given by:

Example Calculations (Using our 1.4 Megapixel Cameras)

If we assume that there is a sufficiently high photon flux and quantum efficiency to allow for a signal S of 10,000 e- to accumulate in a pixel with an exposure of 5 seconds, then the estimated shot noise, σ_S, would be the square root of 10,000, or 100 e-. The read noise is 10 e- (independent of exposure time). For an exposure of 5 seconds and sensor temperatures of 25, 0, and -25 °C, the dark shot noise is given in equation (4). The effective noise is:

The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a useful figure of merit for image quality and is estimated as:

From Equation 7, the SNR values for the three sensor temperatures are:

As the example shows, there is a negligible benefit to using a cooled camera compared to a non-cooled camera operating at room temperature, and the photon shot noise is the dominant noise source in this example. In this case our standard package cameras should therefore work quite well.

However, if the light levels were lower such that a 100 second exposure was required to achieve 900 e- per pixel, then the shot noise would be 30 e-. The estimated dark shot noise would be 22.4 e- at 25 °C, while at -20 °C the dark shot noise would be 3.2 e-. The total effective noise would be

From Equation 8, the SNR values are

In this example, the dark shot noise is a more significant contributor to the total noise for the 25 °C sensor than for the -25 °C sensor. Depending on the application's noise budget, a cooled camera may be beneficial.

Figure 2 shows plots of the different noise components, including dark shot noise at three sensor temperatures, as a function of exposure time for three photon fluxes. The plots show that dark shot noise is not a significant contributor to total noise except for low signal (and consequently long exposure) situations. While the photon flux levels used for the calculations are given in the figure, it is not necessary to know the exact photon flux level for your application. Figure 2 suggests a general metric based on exposure time that can be used to determine whether a cooled camera is required if the exposure time can be estimated, and these results are summarized in Table 2. If you find that your dominant source of noise is due to the read noise, then we recommend running the camera at a lower CCD pixel clock rate of 20 MHz, since that will offer a lower read noise.

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(a)

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(b)

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(c)

Figure 2: Noise from all sources as a function of exposure for three different photon fluxes: (a) low, (b) medium, and (c) high. In (c) the signal and photon shot noise saturate above approximately 20 seconds because the pixel becomes saturated at the corresponding incident photon levels. A quantum efficiency of 60% was used for the calculations. Note that these plots use logarithmic scales for both axes.

Other Considerations

Thermoelectric cooling should also be considered for long exposures even where the dark shot noise is not a significant contributor to total noise because cooling also helps to reduce the effects of hot pixels. Hot pixels cause a "star field" pattern that appears under long exposures. Figure 3 shows an example of this star field pattern for images taken using cameras with and without TEC cooling with an exposure of 10 seconds.

(a)

(b)

Figure 3: Images of the "star field" pattern that results from hot pixels using our (a) standard non-cooled camera and (b) our camera cooled to -20 °C. Both images were taken with an exposure of 10 seconds and with a gain of 32 dB (to make the hot pixels more visible). Please note that in order to show the pattern the images displayed here were cropped from the full-resolution 16 bit images. The full size 16 bit images may be downloaded here and viewed with software such as ImageJ, which is a free download.

Insights into Mounting Lenses to Thorlabs' Scientific Cameras

Scroll down to read about compatibility between lenses and cameras of different mount types, with a focus on Thorlabs' scientific cameras.

• Can C-mount and CS-mount cameras and lenses be used with each other?
• Do Thorlabs' scientific cameras need an adapter?
• Why can the FFD be smaller than the distance separating the camera's flange and sensor?

Click here for more insights into lab practices and equipment.

Can C-mount and CS-mount cameras and lenses be used with each other?

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Figure 1: C-mount lenses and cameras have the same flange focal distance (FFD), 17.526 mm. This ensures light through the lens focuses on the camera's sensor. Both components have 1.000"-32 threads, sometimes referred to as "C-mount threads".

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Figure 2: CS-mount lenses and cameras have the same flange focal distance (FFD), 12.526 mm. This ensures light through the lens focuses on the camera's sensor. Their 1.000"-32 threads are identical to threads on C-mount components, sometimes referred to as "C-mount threads."

The C-mount and CS-mount camera system standards both include 1.000"-32 threads, but the two mount types have different flange focal distances (FFD, also known as flange focal depth, flange focal length, register, flange back distance, and flange-to-film distance). The FFD is 17.526 mm for the C-mount and 12.526 mm for the CS-mount (Figures 1 and 2, respectively).

Since their flange focal distances are different, the C-mount and CS-mount components are not directly interchangeable. However, with an adapter, it is possible to use a C-mount lens with a CS-mount camera.

Mixing and Matching
C-mount and CS-mount components have identical threads, but lenses and cameras of different mount types should not be directly attached to one another. If this is done, the lens' focal plane will not coincide with the camera's sensor plane due to the difference in FFD, and the image will be blurry.

With an adapter, a C-mount lens can be used with a CS-mount camera (Figures 3 and 4). The adapter increases the separation between the lens and the camera's sensor by 5.0 mm, to ensure the lens' focal plane aligns with the camera's sensor plane.

In contrast, the shorter FFD of CS-mount lenses makes them incompatible for use with C-mount cameras (Figure 5). The lens and camera housings prevent the lens from mounting close enough to the camera sensor to provide an in-focus image, and no adapter can bring the lens closer.

It is critical to check the lens and camera parameters to determine whether the components are compatible, an adapter is required, or the components cannot be made compatible.

1.000"-32 Threads
Imperial threads are properly described by their diameter and the number of threads per inch (TPI). In the case of both these mounts, the thread diameter is 1.000" and the TPI is 32. Due to the prevalence of C-mount devices, the 1.000"-32 thread is sometimes referred to as a "C-mount thread." Using this term can cause confusion, since CS-mount devices have the same threads.

Measuring Flange Focal Distance
Measurements of flange focal distance are given for both lenses and cameras. In the case of lenses, the FFD is measured from the lens' flange surface (Figures 1 and 2) to its focal plane. The flange surface follows the lens' planar back face and intersects the base of the external 1.000"-32 threads. In cameras, the FFD is measured from the camera's front face to the sensor plane. When the lens is mounted on the camera without an adapter, the flange surfaces on the camera front face and lens back face are brought into contact.

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Figure 5: A CS-mount lens is not directly compatible with a C-mount camera, since the light focuses before the camera's sensor. Adapters are not useful, since the solution would require shrinking the flange focal distance of the camera (blue arrow).

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Figure 4: An adapter with the proper thickness moves the C-mount lens away from the CS-mount camera's sensor by an optimal amount, which is indicated by the length of the purple arrow. This allows the lens to focus light on the camera's sensor, despite the difference in FFD.

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Figure 3: A C-mount lens and a CS-mount camera are not directly compatible, since their flange focal distances, indicated by the blue and yellow arrows, respectively, are different. This arrangement will result in blurry images, since the light will not focus on the camera's sensor.

Date of Last Edit: July 21, 2020

Do Thorlabs' scientific cameras need an adapter?

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Figure 6: An adapter can be used to optimally position a C-mount lens on a camera whose flange focal distance is less than 17.526 mm. This sketch is based on a Zelux camera and its SM1A10Z adapter.

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Figure 7: An adapter can be used to optimally position a CS-mount lens on a camera whose flange focal distance is less than 12.526 mm. This sketch is based on a Zelux camera and its SM1A10 adapter.

All Kiralux™ and Quantalux^® scientific cameras are factory set to accept C-mount lenses. When the attached C-mount adapters are removed from the passively cooled cameras, the SM1 (1.035"-40) internal threads in their flanges can be used. The Zelux scientific cameras also have SM1 internal threads in their mounting flanges, as well as the option to use a C-mount or CS-mount adapter.

The SM1 threads integrated into the camera housings are intended to facilitate the use of lens assemblies created from Thorlabs components. Adapters can also be used to convert from the camera's C-mount configurations. When designing an application-specific lens assembly or considering the use of an adapter not specifically designed for the camera, it is important to ensure that the flange focal distances (FFD) of the camera and lens match, as well as that the camera's sensor size accommodates the desired field of view (FOV).

Made for Each Other: Cameras and Their Adapters
Fixed adapters are available to configure the Zelux cameras to meet C-mount and CS-mount standards (Figures 6 and 7). These adapters, as well as the adjustable C-mount adapters attached to the passively cooled Kiralux and Quantalux cameras, were designed specifically for use with their respective cameras.

While any adapter converting from SM1 to 1.000"-32 threads makes it possible to attach a C-mount or CS-mount lens to one of these cameras, not every thread adapter aligns the lens' focal plane with a specific camera's sensor plane. In some cases, no adapter can align these planes. For example, of these scientific cameras, only the Zelux can be configured for CS-mount lenses.

The position of the lens' focal plane is determined by a combination of the lens' FFD, which is measured in air, and any refractive elements between the lens and the camera's sensor. When light focused by the lens passes through a refractive element, instead of just travelling through air, the physical focal plane is shifted to longer distances by an amount that can be calculated. The adapter must add enough separation to compensate for both the camera's FFD, when it is too short, and the focal shift caused by any windows or filters inserted between the lens and sensor.

Flexiblity and Quick Fixes: Adjustable C-Mount Adapter
Passively cooled Kiralux and Quantalux cameras consist of a camera with SM1 internal threads, a window or filter covering the sensor and secured by a retaining ring, and an adjustable C-mount adapter.

A benefit of the adjustable C-mount adapter is that it can tune the spacing between the lens and camera over a 1.8 mm range, when the window / filter and retaining ring are in place. Changing the spacing can compensate for different effects that otherwise misalign the camera's sensor plane and the lens' focal plane. These effects include material expansion and contraction due to temperature changes, positioning errors from tolerance stacking, and focal shifts caused by a substitute window or filter with a different thickness or refractive index.

Adjusting the camera's adapter may be necessary to obtain sharp images of objects at infinity. When an object is at infinity, the incoming rays are parallel, and location of the focus defines the FFD of the lens. Since the actual FFDs of lenses and cameras may not match their intended FFDs, the focal plane for objects at infinity may be shifted from the sensor plane, resulting in a blurry image.

If it is impossible to get a sharp image of objects at infinity, despite tuning the lens focus, try adjusting the camera's adapter. This can compensate for shifts due to tolerance and environmental effects and bring the image into focus.

Date of Last Edit: Aug. 2, 2020

Why can the FFD be smaller than the distance separating the camera's flange and sensor?

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Figure 9: Refraction causes the ray's angle with the optical axis to be shallower in the medium than in air (θ_m vs. θ_o ), due to the differences in refractive indices (n_m vs. n_o ). After travelling a distance d in the medium, the ray is only h_m closer to the axis. Due to this, the ray intersects the axis Δf beyond the f point.;

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Figure 8: A ray travelling through air intersects the optical axis at point f. The ray is h_o closer to the axis after it travels across distance d. The refractive index of the air is n_o .

Equations for Calculating the Focal Shift (Δf )
Angle of Ray in Air, from Lens f-Number ( f / N )
Change in Distance to Axis, Travelling through Air (Figure 8)
Angle of Ray to Axis, in the Medium (Figure 9)
Change in Distance to Axis, Travelling through Optic (Figure 9)
Focal Shift Caused by Refraction through Medium (Figure 9)	Exact Calculation
	Paraxial Approximation

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Figure 11: Tolerance and / or temperature effects may result in the lens and camera having different FFDs. If the FFD of the lens is shorter, images of objects at infinity will be excluded from the focal range. Since the system cannot focus on them, they will be blurry.

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Figure 10: When their flange focal distances (FFD) are the same, the camera's sensor plane and the lens' focal plane are perfectly aligned. Images of objects at infinity coincide with one limit of the system's focal range.

Flange focal distance (FFD) values for cameras and lenses assume only air fills the space between the lens and the camera's sensor plane. If windows and / or filters are inserted between the lens and camera sensor, it may be necessary to increase the distance separating the camera's flange and sensor planes to a value beyond the specified FFD. A span equal to the FFD may be too short, because refraction through windows and filters bends the light's path and shifts the focal plane farther away.

If making changes to the optics between the lens and camera sensor, the resulting focal plane shift should be calculated to determine whether the separation between lens and camera should be adjusted to maintain good alignment. Note that good alignment is necessary for, but cannot guarantee, an in-focus image, since new optics may introduce aberrations and other effects resulting in unacceptable image quality.

A Case of the Bends: Focal Shift Due to Refraction
While travelling through a solid medium, a ray's path is straight (Figure 8). Its angle (θ_o ) with the optical axis is constant as it converges to the focal point (f ). Values of FFD are determined assuming this medium is air.

When an optic with plane-parallel sides and a higher refractive index (n_m ) is placed in the ray's path, refraction causes the ray to bend and take a shallower angle (θ_m ) through the optic. This angle can be determined from Snell's law, as described in the table and illustrated in Figure 9.

While travelling through the optic, the ray approaches the optical axis at a slower rate than a ray travelling the same distance in air. After exiting the optic, the ray's angle with the axis is again θ_o , the same as a ray that did not pass through the optic. However, the ray exits the optic farther away from the axis than if it had never passed through it. Since the ray refracted by the optic is farther away, it crosses the axis at a point shifted Δf beyond the other ray's crossing. Increasing the optic's thickness widens the separation between the two rays, which increases Δf.

To Infinity and Beyond
It is important to many applications that the camera system be capable of capturing high-quality images of objects at infinity. Rays from these objects are parallel and focused to a point closer to the lens than rays from closer objects (Figure 9). The FFDs of cameras and lenses are defined so the focal point of rays from infinitely distant objects will align with the camera's sensor plane. When a lens has an adjustable focal range, objects at infinity are in focus at one end of the range and closer objects are in focus at the other.

Different effects, including temperature changes and tolerance stacking, can result in the lens and / or camera not exactly meeting the FFD specification. When the lens' actual FFD is shorter than the camera's, the camera system can no longer obtain sharp images of objects at infinity (Figure 11). This offset can also result if an optic is removed from between the lens and camera sensor.

An approach some lenses use to compensate for this is to allow the user to vary the lens focus to points "beyond" infinity. This does not refer to a physical distance, it just allows the lens to push its focal plane farther away. Thorlabs' Kiralux™ and Quantalux^® cameras include adjustable C-mount adapters to allow the spacing to be tuned as needed.

If the lens' FFD is larger than the camera's, images of objects at infinity fall within the system's focal range, but some closer objects that should be within this range will be excluded. This situation can be caused by inserting optics between the lens and camera sensor. If objects at infinity can still be imaged, this can often be acceptable.

Not Just Theory: Camera Design Example
The C-mount, hermetically sealed, and TE-cooled Quantalux camera has a fixed 18.1 mm spacing between its flange surface and sensor plane. However, the FFD (f ) for C-mount camera systems is 17.526 mm. The camera's need for greater spacing becomes apparent when the focal shift due to the window soldered into the hermetic cover and the glass covering the sensor are taken into account. The results recorded in the table beneath Figure 9 show that both exact and paraxial equations return a required total spacing of 18.1 mm.

Date of Last Edit: July 31, 2020

Thorlabs offers three families of scientific cameras: Zelux^®, Kiralux^®, and Quantalux^®. Zelux cameras are designed for general-purpose imaging and provide high imaging performance while maintaining a small footprint. Kiralux cameras have CMOS sensors in monochrome, color, NIR-enhanced, or polarization-sensitive versions and are available in low-profile, passively cooled housings; compact, passively cooled housings; or hermetically sealed, TE-cooled housings. The polarization-sensitive Kiralux camera incorporates an integrated micropolarizer array that, when used with our ThorCam™ software package, captures images that illustrate degree of linear polarization, azimuth, and intensity at the pixel level. Our Quantalux monochrome sCMOS cameras feature high dynamic range combined with extremely low read noise for low-light applications. They are available in either a compact, passively cooled housing or a hermetically sealed, TE-cooled housing. The tables below provide a summary of our camera offerings.

Compact Scientific Cameras
Camera Type	Zelux® CMOS	Kiralux® CMOS					Quantalux® sCMOS
	1.6 MP	1.3 MP	2.3 MP	5 MP	8.9 MP	12.3 MP	2.1 MP
Item #	Monochrome: CS165MUa Color: CS165CUa	Mono.: CS135MU Color: CS135CU NIR-Enhanced Mono.: CS135MUN	Mono.: CS235MU Color: CS235CU	Mono., Passive Cooling: CS505MU1 CS505MU Mono., Active Cooling: CC505MU Color:  CS505CU1 CS505CU Polarization: CS505MUP1	Mono., Passive Cooling: CS895MU Mono., Active Cooling: CC895MU Color: CS895CU	Mono., Passive Cooling: CS126MU LP126MU(/M) Mono., Active Cooling: CC126MU Color, Passive Cooling: CS126CU LP126CU(/M)	Monochrome, Passive Cooling: CS2100M-USB Active Cooling: CC215MU
Product Photos (Click to Enlarge)
Electronic Shutter	Global Shutter	Global Shutter					Rolling Shutterb
Sensor Type	CMOS	CMOS					sCMOS
Number of Pixels	1440 x 1080 (H x V)	1280 x 1024 (H x V)	1920 x 1200 (H x V)	2448 x 2048 (H x V)	4096 x 2160 (H x V)	4096 x 3000 (H x V)	1920 x 1080 (H x V)
Pixel Size	3.45 µm x 3.45 µm	4.8 µm x 4.8 µm	5.86 µm x 5.86 µm	3.45 µm x 3.45 µm			5.04 µm x 5.04 µm
Optical Format	1/2.9" (6.2 mm Diag.)	1/2" (7.76 mm Diag.)	1/1.2" (13.4 mm Diag.)	2/3" (11 mm Diag.)	1" (16 mm Diag.)	1.1" (17.5 mm Diag.)	2/3" (11 mm Diag.)
Peak Quantum Efficiency (Click for Plot)	Monochrome: 69% at 575 nm Color: Click for Plot	Monochrome: 59% at 550 nm Color: Click for Plot NIR: 60% at 600 nm	Monochrome: 78% at 500 nm Color: Click for Plot	Monochrome & Polarization: 72% (525 to 580 nm) Color: Click for Plot	Monochrome: 72% (525 to 580 nm) Color: Click for Plot	Monochrome: 72% (525 to 580 nm) Color: Click for Plot	Monochrome: 61% (at 600 nm)
Max Frame Rate (Full Sensor)	34.8 fps	165.5 fps	39.7 fps	35 fps (CS505xx1, CC505MU, CS505MUP1), 53.2 fps (CS505xx)	20.8 fps (CC895MU), 30.15 fps (CS895xx)	15.1 fps (CC126MU), 21.7 fps (CS126xx and LP126xx(/M))	50 fps
Read Noise	<4.0 e- RMS	<7.0 e- RMS	<7.0 e- RMS	<2.5 e- RMS			<1 e- Median RMS; <1.5 e- RMS
Digital Output	10 Bit (Max)	10 Bit (Max)	12 Bit (Max)				16 Bit (Max)
PC Interface	USB 3.0
Available Fanless Cooling	N/A	N/A	N/A	15 °C to 20 °C Below Ambient Temperature (CCxxxMU Cameras Only)
Housing Size (Click for Details)	0.59" x 1.72" x 1.86" (15.0 x 43.7 x 47.2 mm3)	Passively Cooled CMOS Camera TE-Cooled CMOS Camera Passively Cooled Low-Profile CMOS Camera					Passively Cooled sCMOS Camera TE-Cooled sCMOS Camera
Typical Applications	Mono. & Color: Brightfield Microscopy, General Purpose Imaging, Machine Vision, Material Sciences, Materials Inspection, Monitoring, Transmitted Light Spectroscopy, UAV, Drone, & Handheld Imaging Mono. Only: Multispectral Imaging, Semiconductor Inspection Color Only: Histopathology	Mono., Color, & NIR: Brightfield Microscopy, Ca++ Ion Imaging, Electrophysiology/Brain Slice Imaging, Flow Cytometry, Fluorescence Microscopy, General Purpose Imaging, Immunohistochemistry (IHC), Laser Speckle Imaging, Machine Vision, Material Sciences, Materials Inspection, Vascular Imaging, Monitoring, Particle Tracking, Transmitted Light Spectroscopy, Vascular Imaging, VIS/NIR Imaging Mono. Only: Multispectral Imaging Semiconductor Inspection Color Only: Histopathology NIR Only: Ophthalmology/Retinal Imaging	Mono. & Color: Autofluorescence, Brightfield Microscopy, Electrophysiology/Brain Slice Imaging, Fluorescence Microscopy, Immunohistochemistry (IHC), Machine Vision, Material Sciences, Materials Inspection, Monitoring, Quantitative Phase-Contrast Microscopy, Transmitted Light Microscopy Mono. Only: Multispectral Imaging Semiconductor Inspection Color Only: Histopathology	Mono. & Color: Autofluorescence, Brightfield Microscopy, Electrophysiology/Brain Slice Imaging, Fluorescence Microscopy, Immunohistochemistry (IHC), Machine Vision, Material Sciences, Materials Inspection, Monitoring, Quantitative Phase-Contrast Microscopy, Transmitted Light Microscopy Mono. Only: Multispectral Imaging, Semiconductor Inspection Color Only: Histopathology Polarization Only: Inspection, Surface Reflection Reduction, Transparent Material Detection	Mono. & Color: Autofluorescence, Brightfield Microscopy, Electrophysiology/Brain Slice Imaging, Fluorescence Microscopy, Immunohistochemistry (IHC), Machine Vision, Material Science, Materials Inspection, Monitoring, Quantitative Phase-Contrast Microscopy, Transmitted Light Microscopy Mono. Only: Multispectral Imaging, Ophthalmology/Retinal Imaging, Semiconductor Inspection Color Only: Histopathology LP126xx(/M), CS126xx, and CC126MU Only: Whole-Slide Microscopy		Passive & Active Cooling: Autofluorescence, Brightfield Microscopy, Fluorescence Microscopy, Immunohistochemistry (IHC), Material Sciences, Materials Inspection, Monitoring, Quantitative Phase-Contrast Microscopy, Quantum Dots, Semiconductor Inspection, Transmitted Light Microscopy, Whole-Slide Microscopy Active Cooling Only: Electrophysiology/Brain Slice Imaging, Multispectral Imaging

• These item numbers are representative of the Zelux family. These cameras are available with or without external hardware triggers.
• Rolling Shutter with Equal Exposure Pulse (EEP) Mode for Synchronizing the Camera and Light Sources for Even Illumination